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Preface xviii
Introduction Bernhard H. Walke Guido Hiertz Lars Berlemann 1
Standardization 1
Next-generation Systems 3
The IEEE 802 Project 4
Motivation and Outline 5
Wireless Communication - Basics Bernhard H. Walke Lars Berlemann Guido Hiertz Christian Hoymann Ingo Forkel Stefan Mangold 7
Radio Transmission Fundamentals 7
Free-space Propagation 8
Two-path Propagation Over Flat Terrain 9
Attenuation 10
Fading 11
Shadowing 12
Filtering and Transmit Spectrum Masks 13
Propagation Models 13
One-slope Model 14
Hata-Okumura Model 14
Walfish-Ikegami Model 15
Dual-slope Model 15
Berg Model 16
Signal-to-Interference Ratio (SIR) 17
Noise - An Additional Source of Interference 18
Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR) 18
Interference Range 19
Digital Modulation 19
Modulation and Coding of Radio Signals 20
Duplexing Schemes 22
Time Division Duplex 22
Frequency Division Duplex 23
Multiplexing 23
Frequency Division Multiplex 23
Time Division Multiplex 24
Code Division Multiplex 25
Space Division Multiplex 25
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex 25
Pilot Tones and Preambles 26
Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) 27
Cyclic Prefix 28
Switching in Communication Networks 29
Circuit Switching 29
Packet Switching 29
Channel Coding for Error Correction and Error Detection 30
Forward Error Correction 30
Automatic Repeat Request Protocols 30
Send-and-Wait 31
Go-back-N 32
Selective-Reject 32
Summary 32
Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request 33
Medium Access Control (MAC) Protocols 33
ALOHA 34
Pure ALOHA 35
Slotted ALOHA 36
Comparison of Pure and Slotted ALOHA 37
Carrier Sense Multiple Access 37
CSMA Variants 38
CSMA/CD 40
CSMA/CA 41
Polling 41
Summary 41
Radio Spectrum Regulation Lars Berlemann Bernhard H. Walke 43
Regulation Bodies and Global Institutions 44
International Telecommunication Union 44
Europe 45
Germany 45
Japan 46
China 46
United States 46
Licensed and Unlicensed Spectrum 47
Licensed Spectrum 47
The Problem with Licensing 47
Unlicensed Spectrum 48
Europe 48
United States 49
Part 15 Regulation 50
Tragedy of the Commons in Spectrum Regulation 50
Open Spectrum 51
Summary 52
Mesh Networks - Basics Guido Hiertz Erik Weiss Bernhard H. Walke 53
Introduction 54
Classification of Wireless Mesh Networks 57
General Problem Statement 58
Path Selection 58
Medium Access Control 59
Exploiting the Capacity of the Radio Channel by Spatial Reuse 59
Hidden Devices - Potential Interferers 61
Exposed Devices - Unused Capacity 62
Fairness and Congestion Avoidance 63
Routing 65
Routing Algorithms 65
Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) 66
Route Discovery 66
Route Maintenance 68
Local Repair 68
Common Link Layer Behavior (Link Adaptation) 68
Link Breakage Prediction 70
Actions for Expected Link Break 71
Early Route Rearrangement (ERRA) 72
Early Route Update (ERU) 73
Simulation Results 74
Conclusions 75
Summary 75
IEEE 802.11 Wireless Local Area Networks Stefan Mangold Lars Berlemann Matthias Siebert Bernhard H. Walke 77
Scope of 802.11 77
Reference Model, Architecture, Services, Frame Formats 78
Reference Model 78
Architecture 79
Services 80
802.11 Frame Formats 80
Physical Layer 82
Frequency Hopping, Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum, and Infrared 83
802.11B Complementary Code Keying, CCK 83
802.11A/G Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing 83
Medium Access Control Protocol 84
Distributed Coordination Function 84
Listen Before Talk 85
Timing and Interframe Spaces 85
Collision Avoidance 87
Recovery Procedure and Retransmissions 88
Post-backoff 88
Fragmentation 89
Hidden Stations and RTS/CTS 90
Synchronization and Cell Search 91
Scanning Procedures in WLAN 802.11 93
Passive Scanning 93
Active Scanning 93
Medium Access Control with Support for Quality-of-Service 94
Point Coordination Function 94
QoS Support with PCF 95
QoS Support Mechanisms of 802.11E 95
Improvements of the Legacy 802.11 MAC 96
Contention-based Medium Access 97
EDCA Parameters Per AC 98
Evaluation of Contention-based Medium Access 100
Related Work 101
EDCA throughput Capacity in an Isolated QBSS with Four Stations 101
EDCA throughput with Increasing Number of Stations 101
Controlled Medium Access 103
QoS Guarantee with HCCA vs. EDCA 103
The Superframe 105
Block Acknowledgment 105
Direct Link Protocol (DLP) 107
Radio Spectrum Management 107
Measurements in 802.11 107
Information Transfer 107
Specific Measurements in 802.11h 108
Basic Report 109
Clear Channel Assessment (CCA) Report 109
Receive Power Indication (RPI) Histogram Report 109
Specific Measurements in 802.11K 110
Channel Load Report 111
Noise Histogram Report 112
Beacon Report 112
Frame Report 113
Hidden Station Report 113
Medium Sensing Time Histogram Report 113
STA Statistics Report 114
LCI Report 114
Measurement Pause Request 115
History and Selected Sub-standards, i.e., Amendments 115
IEEE 802.11 115
IEEE 802.11a 115
IEEE 802.11b 115
IEEE 802.11c 116
IEEE 802.11d 116
IEEE 802.11e 116
IEEE 802.11f 116
IEEE 802.11g 116
IEEE 802.11h 117
IEEE 802.11i 117
IEEE 802.11k 117
IEEE 802.15 Wireless Personal Area Networks Guido Hiertz Yunpeng Zang Bernhard H. Walke 119
Scope of 802.15 120
Objectives 120
Different Subgroups 120
802.15.3 - High-speed Wireless Personal Area Networks 121
Task Group 3 122
802.15.3 Medium Access Control 122
802.15.3 Network Topology 123
802.15.3 Medium Access Control 124
Contention Access Period (CAP) 124
Channel Time Allocation Period (CTAP) 126
802.15.3 Data Transmission 126
802.15.3 Network Security and Robustness 127
802.15.3 Power Management 127
802.15.3 Physical Layer 127
Task Group 3a 128
DS-UWB Proposal 129
MB-OFDM Proposal 130
Task Group 3b 133
Task Group 3c 133
WiMedia (Multiband OFDM) Alliance MAC Layer 134
Overview 135
Next Generation WPAN- WiMedia MAC 135
Medium Access 135
Prioritized Contention Access 135
Distributed Reservation Protocol 136
Transmission Opportunities 138
Acknowledgement Policies 138
Minimum Interframe Space and Frame Aggregation 138
Fragmentation and RTS/CTS Handshake 138
Beacon Period and Beacon Frames 138
Simulative Performance Analysis 140
Conclusion 145
Next-generation WPAN Technologies 145
Market Perspective 145
PHY Technology 145
MAC Design 145
IEEE 802.16 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks Christian Hoymann Bernhard H. Walke
Scope of 802.16 147
Deployment Concept, Reference Model and Target Frequency Bands 148
Deployment Concept 148
Reference Model 149
Target Frequency Bands 150
History and Different Subgroups 151
History 151
IEEE 802.16-2004 - Base Document 152
IEEE 802.16/Conformance 152
IEEE 802.16.2 Coexistence 152
IEEE 802.16e Mobility 153
IEEE 802.16f/g/i Network Management 153
IEEE 802.16h License Exempt 153
IEEE 802.16j Mobile Multi-hop Relay Study Group 153
ETSI BRAN HiperACCESS and HiperMAN 154
WiMAX Forum 154
Wireless Broadband (WiBro) 154
Physical Layer 154
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing in 802.16 155
Randomizer 157
Forward Error Correction 157
Interleaving 157
Medium Access Control Layer 157
Service-Specific Convergence Sublayer 158
Packet Convergence Sublayer 158
ATM Convergence Sublayer 159
MAC Common Part Sublayer 159
Duplex Modes 160
Frame Structure 160
Frame Control 162
Packet Data Unit Format 165
Fragmentation and Packing 166
Automatic Repeat Request 166
Connection Identifier 167
Network Entry 168
Connection Management 169
Bandwidth Requests and Uplink Scheduling Services 171
Security Sublayer 173
System Profiles 173
MAC Profiles 173
Physical Layer Profiles 174
F Profiles, Duplexing Modes and Power Classes 174
Space Division Multiple Access 174
PHY Layer Comprising an Antenna Array 175
Enhanced PHY Service Access Point 176
SDMA Enhanced Medium Access Control Layer 178
SDMA Scheduling 179
Performance Evaluation of 802.16 180
Multi-user Multi Phy Mode Scenario 180
PHY Layer Configuration and PHY Mode Distribution 180
MAC Layer Configuration and Performance Metric 182
Performance Analysis 182
System Performance of the Example Scenario 183
Simulative Performance Evaluation 188
IEEE 802.16 Simulator 188
Simulation Results 189
Performance of SDMA Enabled 802.16 Networks 192
Scenario and Simulation Environment 192
Downlink Cell Throughput 193
Signal to Interference Plus Noise Ratio 194
Conclusion 195
IEEE 802.11, 802.15 and 802.16 for Mesh Networks Guido Hiertz Lars Berlemann Harianto Wijaya Christian Hoymann Stefan Mangold Bernhard H. Walke 197
Approaches to Wireless Mesh Networks in IEEE and Industry 198
Differences between Mesh WPAN, WLAN and WMAN 198
Mesh WLAN 201
802.11s 201
Summary 207
Mesh WPAN 208
Status of Standardization in TG 802.15.5 208
Mesh WMAN 209
802.16 Mesh Option 210
802.16j 211
Extensions to IEEE 802 MAC Protocols - Homogeneous Multi-hop Networks 212
IEEE 802.16 Multi-hop Networks 213
Multi-hop Operation in the Time and Frequency Domain 213
MAC Subframe Embedding 214
Hierarchical Beacon with Fixed Slot Allocation 215
Time Sharing Wireless Router 216
Time Sharing Wireless Router with Spatial Reuse 217
IEEE 802.11e Multi-hop Networks 218
Collision Avoidance through Channel Reservation 219
Collision Avoidance by Channel Reservation with Spatial Reuse 220
Performance Evaluation Results 220
Scenario Description 220
Mean Delay vs. Offered Traffic 222
System Capacity vs. Distance between BS/HC and FRS 223
Summary 223
Extensions to IEEE 802 MAC Protocols for Heterogeneous Multi-hop Networks 224
Overview 224
Medium Access Control in Heterogeneous Mesh Networks 225
802.11 Mesh Network to Serve 802.11 Stations 225
802.16 Mesh Network to Serve 802.11 Stations 225
New Mesh Network Protocol to Connect 802.16 BSs 225
Interworking Control of 802.16 and 802.11 227
Scenario 228
Medium Access Control 229
BSHC and Legacy 802.11 Stations 232
Performance Evaluation Results 233
Summary 235
Conclusion 235
Coexistence in IEEE 802 Networks Lars Berlemann Stefan Mangold Bernhard H. Walke 237
Homogeneous Coexistence - Spectrum Sharing 802.11e Networks 238
Coexistence Scenario 238
Overview 239
Single Stage Game 240
Quality-of-Service as Utility 241
Utility under Competition 243
Behaviors in Single Stage Games 243
Cooperation through Predictable Behavior 243
Classification of the Opponent\'s Behavior 243
Equilibrium Analysis of Single Stage Game 244
Multi Stage Game 245
Strategies in Multi Stage Games 246
Static Strategies 246
Dynamic (Trigger) Strategies Grim and TitForTat 247
RANDOM Strategy 248
QoS Support in Multi Stage Games of Competing WLANs 248
Coexistence Among 802.16 Systems 249
Heterogeneous Coexistence - Unlicensed Operation of 802.16 250
Coexistence Scenario 250
Protecting the Beginning of 802.16 MAC Frame 252
Protecting the 802.16 UL Subframe 253
Shifting the Contention Slots 253
Summary and Conclusion 253
Broadband Cellular Multi-hop Networks Bernhard H. Walke Ralf Pabst Daniel C. Schultz 255
Definitions 255
Rationale 256
Related Work 258
Relay-based Deployment Concept for Cellular Broadband Networks 259
Relaying Use Cases 260
Relay to Increase Coverage Range 260
Relay to Increase Cell Capacity 261
Relay to Cover Locations Heavily Shadowed from Access Point 261
Exploiting Spatial Separation of Subcells in REC 263
Estimation of Subcell Capacity in a Relay Enhanced Cell 264
Multi-hop throughput in Cellular Deployment 264
Subcell Capacity served by an FRS 264
Capacity of Multi-hop Links under Delay Constraint 266
Conclusions 267
Mutual Integration and Cooperation of Radio Access Networks Matthias Siebert Bernhard H. Walke 269
State-of-the-Art Overview 270
ETSI BRAN/3GPP 270
IEEE 272
IEEE 802.11u: Interworking with External Networks 272
802.21 Media Independent Handoff Working Group 273
IETF 274
ITU-T 274
WWRF 275
Mobility and Handover 275
General Aspects of Mobility 276
Handover Aspects 277
Definition 278
Reasons for Handover 278
Types of Handover 279
Handover Control 282
Layer 2 Handover 283
Higher Layer Handover 283
Horizontal and Vertical Handover 284
Trigger 286
Definition and Classification 286
Decision Criteria 287
Future Mesh Technologies Rui Zhao Ole Klein Bernhard. H. Walke Lars Berlemann 289
Facts on Medium Access Control 289
State of the Art in Medium Access Control Protocols - A Taxonomy 291
HiperLAN 2 (H/2) 291
DECT 292
GPRS 292
Potentials and Limitations of the State-of-the-art MAC Protocols 292
Reservation per Packet 293
TDMA in the Short 295
TDMA in the Long 296
Key Methods for QoS Supporting Medium Access Control Protocols 296
Single-hop Links 296
Multi-hop Links 297
Mesh Networking for 802.11 WLAN 298
Mesh Distributed Coordination Function 299
TDMA Frame and Energy Signals 299
Prioritized Channel Access 300
Link Setup and Traffic Channel Reservation 303
Transmission and On-demand-TCH Turnaround 303
Packet Multiplexing and Multi-hop Operation 304
Coexistence 305
Performance Evaluation Results 305
Simulation Tool 305
Simulation Results - QoS Performance in Mesh Networks 306
Conclusion 308
Cognitive Radio and Spectrum Sharing Lars Berlemann Stefan Mangold Bernhard H. Walke 311
From Software-defined Radio to Cognitive Radio 311
Software-defined Radio and Software Radio 311
Composite Radio and Reconfigurable Radio 312
Cognitive Radio 312
Cognitive Radio Networks 314
Essential Characteristics 315
Spectrum Information Base 316
Similar Approaches and Related Work 317
Spectrum Sharing and Flexible Spectrum Access 317
Spectrum Trading 317
Underlay and Overlay Spectrum Sharing 319
Opportunistic Spectrum Usage 320
IEEE 802.11k 321
Vertical and Horizontal Spectrum Sharing 321
Coexistence, Coordination and Cooperation 324
Coexistence-based Spectrum Sharing 324
Dynamic Frequency Selection 325
Transmit Power Control 325
Ultra-wide Band 325
IEEE 802.16.2 326
IEEE 802.16h 326
IEEE 802.19 326
Coordination-based Horizontal Spectrum Sharing 326
Common Spectrum Coordination Channel 326
Dynamic Spectrum Allocation 327
Brokerage-based Spectrum Sharing 321
Inter-operator Spectrum Sharing 328
IEEE 802.11y 328
Spectrum Sharing Games 328
Coordination-based Vertical Spectrum Sharing 329
Common Control Channel 329
IEEE 802.22 330
Spectrum Pooling 330
Value Orientation 330
Spectrum Load Smoothing 330
Policies and Etiquette in Spectrum Usage 331
Policy Framework 331
Spectrum Navigation 332
Reasoning-based Spectrum Navigation 332
Reasoning 333
Knowledge Representation 333
Traceability of Decision Making 334
Policy-defined Medium Access Control 334
Summary and Conclusion 334
Conclusions Bernhard H. Walke Lars Berlemann Stefan Mangold 337
Abbreviations 345
References 355
Index 375