Synthetic Fuels Handbook: Properties, Process, and Performance > 에너지공학

Table of Contents

Preface ix
Fuel Sources 1
Conventional Fuel Sources 4
Nonconventional Fuel Sources 5
Tar Sand Bitumen 6
Coal 8
Oil Shale 10
Natural Gas 14
Gas Hydrates 16
Biomass 16
Bioalcohol 18
Synthetic Fuels 19
Production of Synthetic Fuels 22
Thermal Decomposition 22
Gasification 23
The Fischer-Tropsch Process 24
Bioprocesses 25
Natural Gas 27
History 27
Formation and Occurrence 28
Conventional Gas 31
Associated Gas 31
Nonassociated Gas 32
Liquefied Natural Gas 32
Unconventional Gas 33
Coalbed Methane 33
Gas Hydrates 34
Shale Gas 35
Composition 35
Properties 37
Density 37
Heat of Combustion (Energy Content) 40
Volatility, Flammability, and Explosive Properties 40
Environmental Properties 43
Gas Processing 44
Olamine Processes 45
Physical Solvent Processes 47
Metal Oxide Processes 49
Methanol-Based Processes 51
Carbonate-Washing and Water-Washing Processes 52
Sulfur Recovery Processes 55
Hydrogenation and Hydrolysis Processes 57
Uses 57
Fuels from Petroleum and Heavy Oil 63
History 63
Petroleum Recovery 66
Petroleum Refining 67
Dewatering and Desalting 67
Distillation 68
Thermal Processes 70
Catalytic Processes 74
Hydroprocesses 77
Reforming Processes 80
Isomerization Processes 82
Alkylation Processes 83
Polymerization Processes 84
Deasphalting 85
Dewaxing 86
Heavy Oil Refining 88
Petroleum Products and Fuels 90
Gaseous Fuels 90
Liquid Fuels 92
Solid Fuels 100
Fuels from Tar Sand Bitumen 103
Occurrence and Reserves 104
Canada 105
United States 105
Venezuela 107
Other Countries 107
Structure and Properties of Tar Sand 108
Mineralogy 109
Properties 109
Chemical and Physical Properties of Tar Sand Bitumen 110
Composition 112
Properties 114
Mining Technology 115
Bitumen Recovery 116
The Hot Water Process 116
In Situ Processes 117
Upgrading, Refining, and Fuel Production 120
Primary Conversion 122
Secondary Upgrading 124
Other Processes 124
Hydrogen Production 125
Synthetic Crude Oil 125
The Future 126
Fuels from Coal 131
Occurrence and Reserves 131
Formation and Types 134
Coal Formation 134
Coal Types 135
Mining and Preparation 137
Surface Mining 138
Underground Mining 139
Mine Safety and Environment Effects 139
Coal Preparation 141
Uses 141
Gaseous Fuels 145
Gasifiers 146
Gaseous Products 148
Physicochemical Aspects 150
Gasification Processes 153
Underground Gasification 156
The Future 157
Liquid Fuels 157
Physicochemical Aspects 158
Liquefaction Processes 159
Products 161
The Future 162
Solid Fuels 163
Coke 163
Charcoal 164
Environmental Aspects of Coal Utilization 164
Clean Coal Technologies 165
Fuels from Oil Shale 169
Origin 172
History 173
Occurrence and Development 174
Australia 175
Brazil 176
Canada 176
China 177
Estonia 177
Germany 178
Israel 178
Jordan 178
Morocco 179
Russian Federation 179
Thailand 179
United States 179
Liquid Fuels 181
Thermal Decomposition of Oil Shale 181
Mining and Retorting 182
In Situ Technologies 184
Refining Shale Oil 186
The Future 192
Fuels from Synthesis Gas 197
Gasification of Coal 198
Chemistry 199
Processes 201
Gasifiers 202
Gasification of Petroleum Fractions 203
Chemistry 204
Processes 206
Steam-methane Reforming 209
Gasification of Other Feedstocks 212
Fischer-Tropsch 213
Fuels from Biomass 221
Biomass Fuels 223
Feedstock Types 224
Feedstock Properties 227
The Chemistry of Biomass 228
Processes 231
Process Types 231
Environmental Issues 240
Fuels from Biomass 241
Gaseous Fuels 242
Liquid Fuels 244
Solid Fuels 248
Biofuels from Synthesis Gas 249
Uses 250
A Biorefinery 251
Bioconversion 252
Thermal Conversion 254
Greenhouse Gas Production 257
Other Aspects 257
The Future 259
Fuels from Crops 265
Energy Crops 266
Short Rotation Coppice 267
Miscanthus 267
Reed Canary Grass 268
Cordgrass 268
Switchgrass 268
Reed Plants 269
Jerusalem Artichoke 269
Sorghum 269
Hemp 270
Processes 270
Direct Combustion 270
Gasification 272
Pyrolysis 274
Anaerobic Digestion 275
Ethanol 278
Ethanol Production 279
Other Alcohols 281
Methanol 281
Propanol and Butanol 282
Biodiesel 282
Feedstocks for Biodiesel 283
Transesterification (Alcoholysis) 284
Catalytic Transesterification 284
Noncatalytic Supercritical Methanol Transesterification 286
Effect of Reaction Parameters on Conversion Yield 287
Properties 288
Technical Standards 289
Uses 289
Hydrocarbons 290
Fuels from Wood 297
History 297
Composition and Properties 301
Energy from Wood 304
Fuels From Wood 306
Gaseous Fuels 307
Liquid Fuels 310
Solid Fuels 313
Fuels from Domestic and Industrial Waste 323
Industrial and Domestic Waste 325
Effects of Waste 326
Fuels from Waste Incineration 328
Gaseous Fuels 332
Chemistry 333
Reactors 333
Liquid Fuels 334
Hydrocarbon Fuels 335
Biodiesel 336
Ethanol 338
Other Alcohols 339
Solid Fuels 340
Briquette Manufacture 341
Bagasse Briquettes 342
Sawdust Briquettes 342
Urban Waste Briquettes 342
The Future 342
Landfill Gas 345
Landfill Classification 346
Landfill Gas 347
Biogas and Other Gases 351
Biogas 351
Renewable Natural Gas 352
Gober Gas 352
Formation of Landfill Gas 353
Organic Reactions 355
Inorganic Reactions 356
Landfill Leachate 356
Landfill Gas Monitoring 357
Landfill Mining 358
Gas Migration 359
Diffusion (Uniform Concentration 360
Pressure 360
Permeability 360
Other Factors Affecting Gas Migration 361
Bioreactors 362
Gasification of Landfill Waste 363
Power Generation 364
Definition and Properties of Fuels and Feedstocks from Different Sources 367
Comparison of the Properties of Gaseous Fuels from Different Sources 377
Comparison of the Properties of Liquid Fuels from Different Sources 381
Comparison of the Properties of Solid Fuels from Different Sources 389
Glossary 393
Index 403